Times of change: Carnuntum in late antiquity

Late antiquity was an eventful time for the Roman Empire, characterized by profound changes and numerous challenges. From the middle of the 4th century, the Roman Empire was increasingly shaken by internal crises and conflicts with invading groups from the east and north. In order to withstand these attacks, the border fortifications were significantly expanded for the last time under the Roman Emperor Valentinian I (364-375), including in the section of the Austrian Danube Limes. 

In retrospect, Late Antiquity, like the last centuries of the Western Roman Empire, was characterized by many emperors, only very few of whom were granted long reigns. Flavius Valentinianus, born in 321 AD in Cibalae, today's Vinkovci in Croatia, rose from humble beginnings as a soldier to become the ruler of the Roman Empire. His military career began under Emperor Julian and led him to increasingly important positions. After the death of Julian and Emperor Jovian, Valentinian was proclaimed emperor in Nicaea in 364. He ruled the Western Empire, stabilized the borders and advocated religious tolerance. 

Solidus des Valentinianus I., Datierung 364-367 n. Chr.

Avers: D(ominus) N(oster) VALENTINI-ANVS P(ius) F(elix) AVG(ustus) Büste mit Perlendiadem, Paludament und Cürass nach rechts. 

Revers: RESTITVTOR REI PVBLICAE, im Abschnitt.: MED Valentinian steht frontal, Kopf nach rechts gedreht, hält Vexillum mit Christogramm in der Rechten und Victoria auf Globus in der Linken.

Valentinian I devoted himself intensively to border protection and had forts and burgi - heavily fortified watchtowers - built or extended. He was therefore of particular importance for the history of Carnuntum. This is also reflected in an appearance at this year's "Carnuntum Time Travel" festival. He also had to take action against the Germanic Quads, Marcomanni and Sarmatians, one of the oldest and most persistent enemies of Rome in these latitudes, who were invading the eastern part of the province of Pannonia at the time. In preparation for the battles, he stayed in Carnuntum in 374, which is also recorded in ancient historiography: 

According to the late antique author Ammianus Marcellinus, when he entered the city during his campaign, a sad sight awaited him. The once flourishing city was deserted and run-down:

It is precisely this description from ancient literature that has shaped our archaeological and historical view of Carnuntum at the end of the 4th century. However, the question arises as to how realistic this description really is and whether it is representative of the state of Carnuntum and other late antique cities. Advances in archaeological research are now providing new insights. Despite a restructuring of the provincial administration during the so-called Tetrarchy (the rule of four emperors simultaneously), Carnuntum remained an important military center on the Middle Danube - according to the military administration manual Notitia Dignitatum, legionary troops and naval soldiers were stationed in Carnuntum under the command of a prefect. 

Bauinschrift, Datierung 374 oder 375 n. Chr.

Die Nennung des Kaisers Valentinian mit seinem Bruder Valens und seinem Sohn Gratian auf dieser Bauinschrift ist ein Zeugnis für die Befestigungsarbeiten, die der Kaiser entlang des Limes durchführen ließ. Er hielt sich 374 oder 375 n. Chr. in Carnuntum auf, um einen Feldzug gegen die einfallenden Quaden und Markomannen vorzubereiten.

The function of the city's military facilities also changed in the transition to Late Antiquity. The walls of the legionary camp were reinforced and the camp itself was rebuilt, including the installation of underfloor heating, which indicates increased living comfort, possibly in response to an approaching cold period. Pottery, small objects and coins found date this reconstruction to the period after 364 AD; it can therefore probably be linked to an inscription fragment discovered in 1898 in the west of the camp, which documents construction work under the emperors Valentinian I, Valens and Gratianus (367-375 AD), although no further details of the construction project have survived:

There were various developments outside the legionary camp. The auxiliary fort was no longer used for military purposes from the 3rd century onwards and fell into disrepair. In the southern outskirts of the canabae (camp suburb), finds from the late 4th century show a decline in settlement activity, while new building activity took place in the eastern canabae. 
The civil town of Carnuntum itself underwent a transformation in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries. After an earthquake in the middle of the 4th century, many buildings remained unused or were not rebuilt. At the same time, new burial grounds were created and some buildings continued to be used, indicating a remaining but shrinking population. One example of this is the Heidentor, which was probably built after the earthquake. Based on the archaeological investigations of recent decades as well as the latest analyses, it can be seen that the city was reduced in size and partly fell into disrepair, but also selective new adaptations and conversions were carried out, which paints a mixed picture of the city in late antiquity. 

Until the end of the reign of Valentinian I, the empire was largely at peace, a situation that changed dramatically when the Huns began to migrate westwards from Central Asia. The Quads, Sarmatians and Goths were expelled from their homelands and demanded permanent settlement areas within the Roman Empire. In 401 AD, the Visigoths under the leadership of Alaric crossed Pannonia and in 433 AD, Rome had to cede significant parts of this province to the Huns, which ultimately included Carnuntum. Valentinian did not end well either: after his time in Carnuntum, he moved to the winter camp in Brigetio (Komárom, Hungary). In the course of a negotiation with a Quaden legation, Valentinian became so enraged that he collapsed as a result of a stroke and later died. He was succeeded on the throne by his four-year-old son Valentinian II, who was proclaimed emperor by the troops, as was often customary at the time. 

Further reading on this text:

C. Gugl, Carnuntum am Vorabend des Erdbebens - ein Überblick über die spätantike Siedlung im 4. Jahrhundert, in: A. Konecny – F. Humer – K. Decker (Hrsg.), Das Carnuntiner Erdbeben im Kontext. Akten des III. Internationalen Kolloquiums, 17.-18. Oktober 2013, Kulturfabrik Hainburg, Neue Forschungen / Archäologischer Park Carnuntum 14 (St. Pölten 2019) 42–55. https://www.carnuntum.at/de/carnuntinererbeben 

G. Kremer – A. Pülz, A.D. 313 – Von Carnuntum zum Christentum, Acta Carnuntina 3,2, 2013 https://www.carnuntum.at/de/actacarnuntina322013 

C. Gugl – F. Humer, Carnuntum in der Spätantike, in: F. Humer – A. Pülz – E. Pollhammer – G. Kremer (Hrsg.), A.D. 313. Von Carnuntum zum Christentum, Katalog des Niederösterreichischen Landesmuseums 517 (St. Pölten 2014) 34–44. 

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