Murder and manslaughter - crime in ancient Carnuntum
By Nisa Iduna Kirchengast - Editors: Daniel Kunc, Thomas Mauerhofer
Something has happened again. Theft, fraud, money laundering, but also more serious crimes such as robbery and murder are among the many offences that were committed not only today, but also in Roman times. Crime was an omnipresent problem: although the legal system was highly developed and influential for later legal systems, there was no regular police force in the Roman Empire. Protective measures and criminal prosecution were often in private hands and were handled differently from region to region.
Angled bronze lifting and sliding key © Landessammlungen Niederösterreich
A special feature was the widespread use of architectural protective measures, especially in the urban centres. The houses of the upper classes, often inward-facing building complexes, were equipped with high walls, barred windows and reinforced doors. This was intended to make access more difficult for potential burglars. In dangerous times, symbolic protective measures such as amulets or statuettes of gods were also used to ward off evil spirits and thieves.
In addition to petty crime, counterfeiting was a major problem that undermined confidence in the monetary system. Gambling and fraud were also part of urban crime. On the trade routes and in rural areas, on the other hand, highway robbery and piracy were common. Gangs of robbers threatened travelers on the roads, while pirates made the seas unsafe. These threats were partly contained by military measures, but remote regions in particular were often left defenceless.
Law enforcement in the Roman Empire was not centralized and was mostly in the hands of local magistrates or the military in the provinces. Particularly in border areas, where Roman control was weaker, a certain lawlessness often prevailed. However, serious offenses such as treason, murder or slave revolts were severely punished, including crucifixion or beheading. Milder punishments such as fines, banishment or forced labor were also part of the Roman legal system.
Round, box-shaped spring lock with wooden remnants inside © Landessammlungen Niederösterreich
A special organ within the military were the beneficiarii, who took on civilian tasks as well as military ones, so these soldiers were mainly active in the administration and infrastructure of the provinces. They monitored the movement of goods, took care of tax collection and had administrative tasks that are now carried out by the police, customs and tax authorities. Their posts at important transportation hubs were often responsible for monitoring public order and combating crime.
Another means of “vigilante justice” were curse tablets (defixiones), which the Romans used to curse thieves and reclaim stolen objects. These tablets, which also applied to everyday objects such as gloves or frying pans, bear witness to the everyday threat of petty crime. Defixiones relating to thefts are also known from Carnuntum, such as the curse tablet wishing death to the thief of a vessel:
Sa(n)cte Dite pater et Veracura et Cerbere auxilie, q(u)i tenes limina inferna sive (sive) superna […] v[o]s pre[co]r fa[ci]a[tis] Eudemum … [a]d r[egnum inf]ernum quam cel[e]risi[me]. intra dies nov[em] vasum reponat (das gestohlene Gefäß also), defigo Eudem[um]. nec[et]i[s] cum pesimo leto. ad inf[er]os d[ucat]is eundem recoligatis m[anibu]s, ministeria infernorum [d]eu[m]. cuodi ic (= quomodo hic) plu(m)bus po(n)dus h(a)bet, sic et [E]ud(e)mus hbeat v(o)s iratos, inter la(r)vas … ate ia(m) hos [f]iat quam celerissime(!).
“Holy Dis Pater, Veracura and Cerberus, stand by me, you who hold the thresholds of the underworld or (both) the upper world. [...]
I beseech you, cause Eudemus ... to enter the realm of the Underworld as quickly as possible. Within nine days may he bring back the vessel, I curse Eudemus. Kill him with the worst death. Lead him down to the Underworld, bind him with his hands, at the service of the gods of the Underworld. May he be as heavy as this piece of lead here, so may you too, angry with Eudemus, cast him down among the spirits of the dead ... may this be done as quickly as possible!” (Translation Egger 1926)
Object and criminal accusation: ... vasum(!) reponat ... / (stolen) vessel ... to bring back
Sanction desired by the deity(ies): ... nec[eti]s eum pes(s)imo leto, ad inf[er]os d[uca]tis ... / kills him in the most barbaric way, (then) leads him to the underworld
Invoked deities: Dis Pater, Herecura, Cerberus
Place of discovery: Carnuntum (Bad Deutsch-Altenburg) - late 2nd century AD (AE 1929, 228)
Corruption was also a problem in the military and in the administration, which weakened the population's trust in state institutions. Religious and sexual offenses were also addressed in Roman legal texts and often severely punished. Religious offenses, especially against official cults or deviant faiths such as early Christianity, were severely punished, which indicates the need for social and religious order. Crime in the Roman Empire was characterized by great regional and social diversity. While urban areas were able to offer a certain degree of security through structural protection measures and a well-developed legal system, rural and remote areas were often at the mercy of criminal elements.
Further reading:
M. Reuter (ed.), Gefährliches Pflaster. Kriminalität im Römischen Reich, Xantener Berichte 21 (Mainz am Rhein 2013).